The dominant religion of the Unifed SINRA was Buddhism. It was unanimously accepted as the spiritual guide from the king on the top down to those in the bottom rung. There was a massive exodus of Buddhist monks leaving the country to learn the true teachings of Buddha in China and India. The period of TONGILSILLA was known for many celebrated monks. WONGWANG, Chajang, UISANG, Hyecho and Wonchuk were among the celebrated few to mention. Wonchuk made his name known in China for his contribution to the propagation of Buddha's teachings by translating Buddhist scriptures from Sanskrit into Chinese and writing commentaries. Hyecho ventured his way by sea to India and wrote a book based on his travels, a fragment of which was recently discovered in China.

      Another consequence of this cultural contact was the introduction of "Five Doctrinal Sects" as they had been introduced into China. They were the Yolban (Niravana Sutra) sect, the Kyeyul (Vinaya) sect, the Hwaom (Avatamsaka Sutra) sect, the Popsong (Dharmata) sect and the Popsang (Dharmalakshana) sect. The sect which was particularly popular among the aristocrats was Hwaom. The founder of Hwaom was UISANG, who had studied under Jiom, the greatest authority on Hwaom in China. Popsang was based upon the ideas of WONHYO, who had tried to harmonize the doctrines of all the principal sects. Although WONHYO didn't study in China, he was esteemed in the T'ang Dynasty. His ideal was embodied in his book Sipmun hwajong-non (Treatise on the Harmonious Understanding of the Ten Doctrines).

      Among the masses, there appeared a new sect called Chongt'o-gyo (GEUKRAK), which made no demand for understanding the inscrutable text of the sutra. It was an elaboration of the Mahayana doctrine of the Bodhisattvas, which taught that one could obtain salvation (enter the "GEUKRAK") simply by YEOMBUL. It taught of the future world called "niravana" and salvation which follows the painful life in the contemporary world. WONHYO was the proponent of Chongt'o-gyo and did much to the propagation of this belief.

      On the local level, MIREUKSINANG(belief in the rock Buddha stutue), a branch of Popsang sect, gained prevalence among the masses. They were of the belief that Miruk Buddha will descend on this world and build a new idealistic society in his image. This belief was very influential in stirring the populace into organized efforts to restore the glory of the old kingdoms, BAEKJE and GOGURYEO.

2) Development of Confucianism

      Confucianism was of great use in consolidating the centralized ruling system in SINRA. In the second year of SINMUNWANG (682),GUKHAK was established. In the l6th year of SEONGDEOKWANG (7l7), Confucius, l0 Chinese philosophers and 72 disciples were introduced and their images were enshrined. GUKHAK Confucianism was changed into "Tae Hak Gam" (Great Learning Institute) under the reign of GYEODEOKWANG. The teachings of Confucianism were divided into three departments, each having a distinctive assortment of disciplines.

      Lono and Hyo Kyung were the required subjects and others were elective subjects. Tae Hak Gam was open to sons of aristocrats, and those in the grades l through 6 must have constituted the majority of learners.

      In the fourth year of WONSEONGWANG (788), DOKSEOSAMPUMGWA was institutionalized to determine eligibility for the government office. The examination was based on the subjects that were taught at Tae Hak Gam. But those who had broadly been versed with the teachings of the l00 Chinese philosophers were favored in the competition. The examination system was a system of employing government officials based on the demonstrated merits in the competive examination, a far cry from the earlier system of selecting on the basis of GOLPUMJE.

      The aristocrats in grades l through 6 were ardent learners of Confucianism. They stressed this worldly-oriented morality and criticized Buddhism for the duality inherent in its vision of the world. The most typical of this category were KANG SU and Sol Chong. KANG SU was particularly admired for his ability in drafting government documents and diplomatic notes. Sol Chong, son of WONHYO, was best known for his broad scholarship in Chinese literature and history. It was he who adpated Idu, a system of using Chinese characters phoneticaly to record Korean songs and poems, to the writing of Korean prose.

3) Taoism and Hermit Thought

      There was a mountain west of Kyung Joo, whose name was the Mountain of Sun Do (literally the Mountain of Spiritual Guide). People in SINRA santified the mountain by belief in the presence of a SAMSIN. Aparently, the mountain was named after the one in China which a legend depicted as a sanctuary where the SAMSIN bestowed guidance on King Muje of Han Dynasty. This legendary belief reflected the merging of the traditional mountain belief and Taoist's belief in "longevity without getting old."

      Taoism is also reflected in the Herculean task of creating a heavenly world which had been completed in the l4th year of MUNMUWANG (674). ANAPJI was created and a mountain took shape. Hills were full of a variety of flowers and three man-made islands resembled the heavenly world. Those living in the heavenly world were supposed to enjoy longevity without getting old.

      KIMINMUN, younger brother of MUNMUWANG was alleged to have mastered not only Confucianism but theories of Ro Chu and Cheng Chu and even taoism. HYEGONGWANG was associated with Taoists. Their primary concern was with longevity without gettig old.

      Hermit life far removed from the secular worldly affairs was envied as the way to live a long life without getting old.

      Korean scholarship and technology witnessed significant progress during TONGILSILLA period. KIM DAEMUN, a great scholar under the reign of SEONGDEOKWANG (702 - 737) was known for authorship on Kyerim Chapchon (Writings of Kyerim - referring to the forestry of Kyung Joo), Koseungchon (Tales of Noble Monks), HWARANGSEGI (The Annals of Wharang - Warriors), etc., all concerned about history and geography. None of his writings exist today: SAMGUKSAGI and SAMGUKYUSA cited some of his writings.

      Astrology was developed to forecast weather and observe astrological phenomena. But tools used for astrological purposes were meagre: HAESIGYE, CHEOMSEONGDAE built under the reign f King Sun Dok (632-647), and NUGAK built in the l7th year of SEONGDEOKWANG (7l8) were among the few that were used. There was a famous astrologist named Kim Ang who authored "Astrological Technology" after he had studied the Lin-Yang cycle in China.

      Architectural technology greatly advanced and was practially applied in a number of areas, most notably in Buddhist architecture. Mathematical knowledge was applied to the structural design of SEOGULAM and its interior dome and the semmetry reflected in the two towers of BULGUKSA, SEOKGATAP and DABOTAP. Advanced technology used to provide humidity-free ventilation into the stone grotto is something to be unimmutable even today.

      Advance of iron-casting technology is manifested in the intricately shaped Buddha statues and BEOMJONG. A recent examination of the iron-cast BEOMJONG by using modern photographic technology put it beyond doubt that their craftmanship was unflawed even by modern standards. The art of woodblock printing was developed in order to reproduce Buddhist sutras and classical Confucian writings. The copy of DARANIGYEONG found not many years ago in the base of the Pagoda That Casts No Shadow, and which therefore must pre-date the construction of the pagoda in 75l, is the world's oldest existant example of woodblock printing.

5) Literature and Art

      HYANGGA genre, the special SINRA poetic form, developed a rich lyricism. Among the most admired poems were Deuk'o's "Ojukjirang-ga," WOLMYEONGSA's "DOSOLGA" and "Che Mangmae-ga," and Chungdamsa's "CHANGIPARANGGA" and "ANMINGA." Unfortunately, most of these poems are not existant. SAMGUKYUSA includes 25 HYANGGA poems, including ll of Kyunyo-chon's "Bohyunsiphyun-ga." Under the reign of JINSEONGYEOWANG (887 - 897) Taegu Hwasang gathered a large number of these HYANGGA into an anthology called "SAMDAEMOK," but unfortunately it has not survived.

      Musical genre took a variety of forms as musical instruments were introduced from BAEKJE and GOGURYEO. The exclusive use of "GAYAGEUM" gave way to the diversity of musical instruments used and this facilitated the development of "Hyang Ak." Dancing tuned to Hyang Ak developed with the specific goal of exorcism, that is, to drive away evil spirits from home.

      SEOGULAM is a man-made stone grotto designed as a setting for the worship of a principal statue of Buddha. The large Sukayamuni Buddha figure in the center of the interior chamber, the eleven-headed Goddess of Mercy and the various BOSAL carved on the surrounding wall and two Benevolent Kings on the walls of the antecchamber, and the Four Deva Kings standing guard along the passageway all add its distinctive note to the symphony of beauty represented by SEOGULAM.

      In discussing art forms inspired by the practice of the Buddha faith, the castings of bronze temple BEOMJONG can by no means be overlooked. The oldest bell is dated 725, cast in the 24th year of SEONGDEOKWANG, now placed at the Sangwon Temple. The most famous one was cast in 77l, the 7th year of HYEGONGWANG, now placed at the Bongduk Temple. It measures seven feet and six inches in diameter and is eleven feet high, making it the largest surviving Korean bell. It also is the most exquisitely wrought in the shape of the bell itself and in the beauty of its decodration with flying angels and lotus flower motifs. The bells of SINRA have a unique shape that, together with their exquisitely executed raised designs, give them a beauty unequalled by the temple bells of China or Japan.

      KIMINMUN was a famous SEOYE. His writing is inscribed on the epitaph of King Muyol's tomb. More famous was Kim Sang whose writing was often mistaken for that of Wang Hui Ji, the most famous SEOYE of T'ang Dynasty. Kim Sang gave greater importance to style rather than format, thus making his writing more lively and dynanic.

      Tombs are the treasure house of SINRA works of art unrelated to Buddhism. After the unification the prevalent style of tomb architecture took on a different form, characterized by a horizontal passageway leading to a stone burial camber. The much smaller earthen mound covering the burial chamber was faced with upright supporting slabs of stone, on which were carved representations of the twelve zodiacal animal deities. These were borrowed from the ancient Chinese calendar but their use in tomb architecture is a unique SINRA development. The apparent belief was that these animal figures (rat, bull, tiger, horse, etc.), all in upright human form and bearing weapons, would guard the soul of the deceased. The most typical of these were the tomb of General KIM YUSIN and Pareung.

6) The Culture of BALHAE

      BALHAE maintained a friendly relation with T'ang Dynasty which had been hostile to it. It was after this diplomatic feat that diplomats, trademen, monks and students went to China in large numbers in connection with their missions. Exposure to T'ang's advanced culture brought BALHAE to the new height of cultural flourishing.

      Buddhism was the dominant religion in BALHAE. Buddha statues, stone lanters, lotus flower motifs which had been excavated in the old sites of temples in the capital city bear witness to the widely spread Buddhist faith from the aristocrats down to the masses.

      Confucianism was ardently advocated by the ruling class as an idealistic system of government. Judging from names of the bureacratic positions which bore similarity to those of T'ang's and the number of students studying in T'ang, it can be said that BALHAE went to great lengths to adopt the culture, ideals and ruling system of T'ang. Recent excavation of epitaphs of two tombs for Princesses - Jeong Hye and Jeong Hyo- speaks for the sophisticated use of Chinese characters.

      It is important to bear in mind that the culture of BALHAE reflects the elements of GOGURYEO. BALHAE itself was founded on the cultural base of GOGURYEO. The structural characteristics of GOBUN, the "ONDOL' remnants found in the palace, the shapes of Buddha statues, lotus flower motifs, the stripes of textile fabrics, all bear witness to affinity between the two kingdoms.

7) BALHAE and the History of Korea

      The foundation of BALHAE was followed by rapid growth, and the kingdom was once depicted by Chinese history as "the flourishing land in the east." However, its ethnic diversity - with GOGURYEO descendents in the ruling class and MALGAL people being ruled - undermined the kingdom's effort to cement social solidarity, which was vital to eking out its existence through the frequent rise and fall of continental powers. The historical fact that BALHAE fell to its knees so easily before GEORAN's invasion in 926 bears testimony to that enthnical conflicts had a deadly impact on its survival.

      The demise of BALHAE meant the discontinuance of its history and culture. The ruling class of GOGURYEO descent joined the new dynasty, Koryo, and MALGAL people were incapable of succeeding BALHAE's culture. This reality gave an easy way to the emerging of GEORAN kingdom on the very site of BALHAE. This kingdom developed into a mighty power called "Chin," foreboding turbulent eras for China.

      BALHAE was the last kingdom to rule over Manchuria politically, economically and culturally and the sole successor to GOGURYEO. With its demise, BALHAE, as the entity of historical significance, was forgotten in the annal of Korean history. The historical orthodoxy of each nation lies in the continued flow of history. This fact is the very reason why Koreans find their orthodoxy along the line of TONGILSILLA - Koryo Dynasty. Despite the fact that BALHAE once stood out as the legitimate state pitted against TONGILSILLA, it lost its identity as its history knelt death toll. It is encouraging, though, to see renewed efforts of historians to view BALHAE in the context of the South-North Period, with the same importance as given to SAMGUK Period.